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Adaptation to climate change is a complex topic that presents a number of challenges. Indeed, one important challenge lies in defining adaptation and understanding the full scope of its implications. Adaptation is currently the topic of numerous studies that offer a range of definitions. The IPCC offers a starting point by providing a broad definition of adaptation: adjustment in natural or human systems to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. However, adaptation is increasingly difficult define in practical and operational terms. To aid in this effort, some key points can be identified to provide a helpful framework for understanding the complex nature of adaptation.

In October 1986, scientists and climatologists were gathered by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the International Council of Scientific Union (ICSU) at an international conference in Villach, Austria, to discuss the problem of anthropogenic interference in the Global Climate System (GCS). At the end of the conference, they declared jointly that the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gasses (GHG) due to the intensive industrial activity in developed countries is the origin of the long succession of temperature anomalies recorded by climatologists since the beginning of 20th century and will probably further stress the sensitivity of the GCS during the 21st century.

For Pacific SIDS, the need for adaptation to climate change has become increasingly urgent. Long-term climate changes, including the increasing frequency and severity of extreme events such as high rainfall, droughts, tropical cyclones, and storm surges are affecting the lives and livelihoods of people in PICs. Coupled with non-climate drivers, such as inappropriate land use, overexploitation of resources, increasing urbanization and population increase, development in the region is increasingly undermined. For the low lying atolls, the likely economic disruption from climate change pressures could be catastrophic, even to the extent of requiring population relocation to other islands or adding numbers to the Pacific diaspora, with the subsequent social and cultural disruption having unknown proportions. Failure to reduce vulnerability could also result in loss of opportunities to manage risks in the future when the impacts may be greater and time to consider options limited.

Integrating community based disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation (CCA) is identified at the policy and practical level as crucial to aid effectiveness. Successful integration reduces both duplication of efforts and confusion at the community level. This research focuses on Pacific community based DRR and CCA initiatives, and draws upon the knowledge and insight of key stakeholders from multiple backgrounds to develop an understanding of the current status of DRR and CCA in the region. Additional understanding is gained through detailed case studies of current projects in Fiji and Samoa which highlight the challenges and best practice methods used to integrate DRR and CCA in current community based projects.

The Regional Seas programme of UNEP commenced in 1974 and since that time considerable advances have been made in the development of regional action plans and conventions for the protection of the marine and coastal areas of some eleven regions world- wide. Following these developments UNEP has encouraged inter-regional co-operation in addressing various issues of environmental concern through the organisation of international meetings and inter-regional symposia. This volume contains the record of one such symposium, held in Vina del Mar. Chile in association with the VI Inter-Congress of the Pacific Science Association.

Some presentations refer to the term Marine Managed Area (MMA) instead of Marine Protected Area (MPA) in order to cover more management options. The workshop proposed and adopted a rough typology of MM As that will be useful to communicate with the key decision makers (land use planners, coastal zone planners and managers, regional planners, protected area planners and managers, community leaders, sectorial planners in fisheries and environment...)

The aim of this consultancy is to prepare a broad analysis of legal and institutional options for the establishment and management of Conservation Areas in fourteen independent Pacific Island countries. The full terms of reference for the consultancy are annexed at Appendix 1.

Climate change poses a massive threat to development. The poorest populations of poor countries - the Least Developed Countries, Small Island Developing States, and the nations of Africa - face the concentrated challenge of tackling the worst of the impacts with the least capacity to do so. Clearly, adaptation to climate impacts must be seamlessly integrated into any development planning and policy. This four- step plan for mainstreaming climate change aims to fulfil that need. A 'learning by doing approach, it focuses first on national capacity to ensure that development in all sectors and at all levels is effectively climate-proofed.

In 1981, the Isabel provincial government first recognized the importance of the Arnavon Islands as a nesting ground for Hawksbill turtles, and designated the islands as a Wildlife Sanctuary. At that time, however, the government did not adequately recognize the local communities' rights and the project failed. In 1989, the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) collaborated with the Solomon Islands government and the Ministry of Natural Resources (now the Ministry of Forestry, Environment and Conservation or MFEC) to survey the Hawksbill turtle nesting beaches and populations in the northern Solomon Islands including the Amavons. The surveys documented the severe depletion of the Hawksbill turtle population due to the turtle shell (bekko) export trade which has flourished in recent years. As a result of the surveys interest was renewed for conservation in the area and local communities were approached for their support in establishing a conservation area. Through its close association with SPREP and MFEC, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) was invited by the government to take a leading role in developing and implementing a marine conservation area project to protect turtle nesting beaches and other important marine and island species on the Arnavon Islands.

Several urban areas and popular tourist destinations have suffered from pollution from the land, significant fishing pressure, recreational overuse, and alien species. Despite these pressures, many coral reefs in Hawai'i remain in fair to good condition, especially remote reefs; Most MPAs have proven to be highly effective in conserving biodiversity and fisheries resources. MPA size, habitat quality, and level of protection are the most important success factors, but several MPAs are too small to have significant effects outside their boundaries; Community-based management has been effective at several locations in Hawai'i and expansion of these efforts is being encouraged; Continued invasion and degradation of new habitats by alien species remains one of the most pressing threats to reefs in Hawai'i; The Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (PMNM) is the largest fully protected marine conservation area in the world, with a unique predator-dominated trophic structure, many endemic species, and many threatened and endangered species. This is an important global biodiversity 'hot spot'; Global impacts such as climate change (sea level rise, ocean warming and acidification) and marine debris threaten the unique ecosystem of the PMNM, and rapid international action is needed.